"Myanmar and North Korea were long known as Asia’s ‘pariah states’ — internationally sanctioned and ostracised for human rights violations, authoritarian repression and, in North Korea’s case, persistent efforts to develop nuclear weapons. But in 2011, Myanmar’s ruling junta surprised observers by making a strategic decision to reform and open, ushering in a quasi-civilian government. Meanwhile, North Korea pressed ahead with its nuclear and missile programs, hardening its pariah status. Myanmar and North Korea rely heavily on China for trade, investment, diplomatic support and military assistance. But citizens in both countries express resentment about China’s growing economic and political influence. In Myanmar, concerns centre on China’s ties to ethnic armed groups fighting against the central government, and the environmental and social effects of Chinese-led infrastructure projects like the Myitsone Dam. Consequently, Myanmar used liberalising reforms to signal its desire to adhere to international norms and attract new diplomatic partners. North Korea relies even more heavily on China and resents Beijing’s endorsement of UN sanctions against its nuclear weapons and missile programs. Yet North Korea eschewed reform and opening, instead doubling down on its pariah status by racing to advance its nuclear and missile programs. There are three factors behind Myanmar and North Korea’s different approaches to mitigating reliance on China..."